Human Trafficking in the United Kingdom: A Critical Analysis of the United Kingdom’s Legislation to Combat Human Trafficking

• Aththanayaka Mudiyanselage Sammani Anuththara Aththanayaka

  Legal Intern, Afghanistan and Central Asian Association

  Author

Human Trafficking (HT) in the United Kingdom (UK) is a controversial topic. Due to its evolving nature, many pieces of legislation have been introduced, including the Modern Slavery Act 2015, inspired by international law. Current evidence indicates that there are gaps and weaknesses in the existing legal framework. This project critically evaluates the effectiveness of the current legal framework in the UK to combat HT and its consonance with international obligations to determine whether it requires amendments. To accomplish this, major attention was drawn to the Modern Slavery Act 2015 as the primary legislation addressing this issue.

Additionally, this project will critically discuss the role of the judiciary in the interpretation of legislation and international obligations. To analyse domestic and international laws, the doctrinal methodology has been used alongside the comparative methodology to identify the consonance and gaps in the UK legal framework. Accordingly, primary and secondary sources were critically analysed to assess the effectiveness and determine whether reforms are needed. It is concluded that the legislation addressing HT has considerable challenges and issues in the UK, and more effective reforms are essential for victim protection.

1. Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (adopted 18 December 1979, entered into force 3 September 1981) 1249 UNTS 13 (CEDAW)

2. Convention on the Rights of the Child (adopted 20 November 1989, entered into force 2 September 1990) 1577 UNTS 3 (CRC)

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5. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (adopted 16 December 1966, entered into force 23 March 1976) 999 UNTS 171(ICCPR)

6. Protocol against the Illicit Manufacturing and Trafficking in Firearms, Their Parts and Components and Ammunition (adopted 31 May 2001, entered into force 3 July 2005) 2326 UNTS 208 (Firearms Protocol)

7. Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (adopted 15 November 2000, entered into force 28 January 2004) 2225 UNTS 209 (Smuggling Protocol)

8. Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (adopted 15 November 2000, entered into force 25 December 2003) 2237 UNTS 319 (Palermo protocol)

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10. Universal Declaration of Human Rights (adopted 10 December 1948) UNGA Res 217 A (III) (UDHR)

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12. Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings (adopted 16 May 2005, entered into force 1 February 2008) CETS 197

13. Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 20 December 2004/ A/RES/59/166/10 February 2005

14. UNGA Res 64/293 (12 August 2010) UN Doc A/RES/64/293

15. Directive 2011/36/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 5 April 2011 on preventing and combating trafficking in human beings and protecting its victims and replacing Council Framework Decision 2002/629/JHA

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17. Constitution of the French Republic1958

18. Constitution of the Republic of South Africa 1996

19. Political Constitution of the United Mexican States 1917

20. Human Trafficking and Exploitation (Criminal Justice and Support for Victims) Act (Northern Ireland) 2015

21. Human Trafficking and Exploitation (Scotland) Act 2015

22. Illegal Migration Act 2023

23. Modern Slavery Act 2015

24. Nationality and Borders Act 2002

25. Online Safety Act 2023

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73. United Nations, ‘General Assembly appraises the UN Global Plan of Action to Combat Trafficking in Persons’ https://www.unodc.org/unodc/frontpage/2021/November/general-assembly-appraises-the-un-global-plan-of-action-to-combat-trafficking-in-persons.html accessed 24 July 2024

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75. United Nations, ‘The 17 Goals’ https://sdgs.un.org/goals accessed 24 July 2024

76. United Nations, ‘UK: Migrant workers must be protected from deception and exploitation say UN experts’ (ohchr.org, 03 June 2024) https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2024/06/uk-migrant-workers-must-be-protected-deception-and-exploitation-say-un accessed 3 August 2024

77. United Nations, ‘United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and the Protocols Thereto’ https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/organized-crime/intro/UNTOC.html accessed 3 July 2024

78. UNODC, ‘The crime of trafficking in persons’ https://www.unodc.org/e4j/en/tip-and-som/module-6/key-issues/crime-of-trafficking-in-persons.html accessed 5 July 2024

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80. Ahmad S , ‘The National Referral Mechanism: The UK's Inadequate Support for Modern Slavery Victims’ (16 November 2021) https://www.humanrightspulse.com/mastercontentblog/the-national-referral-mechanism-the-uk-states-inadequate-support-for-modern-slavery-victims accessed 3 August 2024

81. Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, 'Concluding Observations on the Eighth Periodic Report of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland' (18 February – 8 March 2019) UN Doc CEDAW/C/GBR/CO/8

82. Council of Europe, ‘GRETA carries out third evaluation of the United Kingdom’ (6 October 2020) https://www.coe.int/en/web/anti-human-trafficking/-/greta-carries-out-evaluation-of-the-united-kingdom-as-part-of-the-third-evaluation-roun accessed 1 August 2024

83. Independent Anti-Slavery Commissioner, ‘Independent Anti-Slavery Commissioner Annual Report 2021-2022’ https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/62617c2fd3bf7f55ca4ccf0e/E02718100_Un-num_Act_Independent_Anti-Slavery_Commission_Web_Accessible.pdf accessed 3 August 2024

84. The House of Commons Home Affairs Committee, ‘Human Trafficking: First Report of Session 2023-24’ (Authority of the House of Commons, 8 December 2023) https://committees.parliament.uk/publications/42482/documents/211207/default/ accessed 3 August 2024

85. United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, 'United Kingdom's Eighth Periodic Report' (26 February 2019) UN Doc CEDAW/C/GBR/8

86. U.S. Department of State, ‘2024 Trafficking in Persons Report’ (2024) https://www.state.gov/reports/2024-trafficking-in-persons-report/ accessed 3 August 2024.

87. The House of Commons Home Affairs Committee, ‘Human Trafficking: First Report of Session 2023-24’ (Authority of the House of Commons, 8 December 2023) https://committees.parliament.uk/publications/42482/documents/211207/default/ accessed 3 August 2024, 8.

88. Home office, ‘Press release Alarming rise of abuse within modern slavery system” (20 March 2021) https://www.gov.uk/government/news/alarming-rise-of-abuse-within-modern-slavery-system accessed 3 July 2024.

89. Home Office, ‘Modern Slavery: an application of multiple systems estimation’ (29 November 2014) https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/modern-slavery-an-application-of-multiple-systems-estimation accessed 20 July 2024.

90. ibid.

91. ibid.

92. Ella Cockbain and others, ‘Concentrations of harm: Geographic and demographic patterning in human trafficking and related victimization’ (2024) Criminology & Criminal Justice 1, 6,7.

93. ibid 6.

94. Home Office, ‘2021 annual report on modern slavery’ (25 November 2021) https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/2021-uk-annual-report-on-modern-slavery/2021-uk-annual-report-on-modern-slavery-accessible-version accessed 25 July 2024.

95. ibid.

96. ibid.

97. ibid.

98. Home Office, ‘Modern Slavery: National Referral Mechanism and Duty to Notify statistics UK, end of year summary 2023’ (7 March 2024) https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/modern-slavery-nrm-and-dtn-statistics-end-of-year-summary-2023/modern-slavery-national-referral-mechanism-and-duty-to-notify-statistics-uk-end-of-year-summary-2023 accessed 28 July 2024.

99. ibid.

100. ibid.

101. ibid.

102. Home Office, ‘Official Statistics: Modern Slavery: National Referral Mechanism and Duty to Notify statistics UK, quarter 1 2024-January to March’ (10 May 2024) https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/modern-slavery-nrm-and-dtn-statistics-january-to-march-2024/modern-slavery-national-referral-mechanism-and-duty-to-notify-statistics-uk-quarter-1-2024-january-to-march accessed 28 July 2024.

103. Ella Cockbain (n 7).

104. Home Office (n 13).

105. ibid.

106. ibid.

107. ibid.

108. Home Office (n 17).

109. Home Office (n 13).

110. ibid.

111. National Crime Agency, ‘Modern slavery and human trafficking https://nationalcrimeagency.gov.uk/what-we-do/crime-threats/modern-slavery-and-human-trafficking accessed 20 July 2024.

112. Metropolitan Police, ‘Human trafficking’ https://www.met.police.uk/advice/advice-and-information/ms/human-trafficking/ accessed 20 July 2024.

113. Ella Cockbain (n 7) 6.

114. Home office (n 13).

115. ibid.

116. ibid.

117. ibid.

118. Ella Cockbain (n 7) 6.

119. U.S. Department (n 1).

120. Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (adopted 15 November 2000, entered into force 25 December 2003) 2237 UNTS 319 (Palermo protocol).

121. ibid preamble.

122. Roger Plant, ‘Forced Labour, Slavery and Human Trafficking: When do definitions matter?’ (2015) 5 Anti- Trafficking Review 153, 154.

123. Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (adopted 15 November 2000, entered into force 28 January 2004) 2225 UNTS 209 (Smuggling Protocol) and Protocol against the Illicit Manufacturing and Trafficking in Firearms, Their Parts and Components and Ammunition (adopted 31 May 2001, entered into force 3 July 2005) 2326 UNTS 208 (Firearms Protocol).

124. United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (adopted 15 November 2000, entered into force 29 September 2003) 2225 UNTS 209 art 37 (2).

125. United Nations, ‘United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and the Protocols Thereto’ https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/organized-crime/intro/UNTOC.html accessed 3 July 2024.

126. Siobhán Mullally, ‘Statement of the UN Special Rapporteur on Trafficking in Persons, especially women and children on the occasion of the 10th session of the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime’ https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Issues/Trafficking/Statement_Special_Rapporteur.pdf accessed 20 July 2024.

127. Palermo (n 35) art 2.

128. ibid art 6 (1).

129. UNODC, ‘The crime of trafficking in persons’ https://www.unodc.org/e4j/en/tip-and-som/module-6/key-issues/crime-of-trafficking-in-persons.html accessed 5 July 2024.

130. Palermo (n 35) art 3(c).

131. Conny Rijken, Trafficking in Persons: Prosecution from a European Perspective (TMC Asser Press 2003) 270.

132. Palermo (n 35) art 6.

133. ibid.

134. Rita Haverkamp and others, What is wrong with human trafficking? Critical perspectives on the law (Hart Publishing, 2019) 45.

135. Natalia Ollus, ‘Regulating forced labour and combating human trafficking: the relevance of historical definitions in a contemporary perspective’ (2015) 63 (5) Crime, law, and social change 221, 223.

136. Palermo (n 35) art 7.

137. Secretary of State for the Home Department v Lyudmila Dzhygun [2013] EWCA Civ 1633.

138. David Hodge and Chinthia Lietz, ‘The International Sexual Trafficking of Women and Children: A Review of the Literature’ (2007) 22 Affilia: Journal of Women and Social Work 163, 164.

139. Marica McAdam, The international legal framework on human trafficking: contemporary understandings and continuing confusions (SAGE Publications, 2019) 6.

140. Universal Declaration of Human Rights (adopted 10 December 1948) UNGA Res 217 A (III) (UDHR) art 1.

141. ibid art 3.

142. ibid art 4.

143. Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (adopted 18 December 1979, entered into force 3 September 1981) 1249 UNTS 13 (CEDAW) art 6.

144. General Recommendation on the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women https://docstore.ohchr.org/SelfServices/FilesHandler.ashx?enc=6QkG1d%2FPPRiCAqhKb7yhsldCrOlUTvLRFDjh6%2Fx1pWDzDf17M0o0BdlJx4bGjoTpEC7aWTflJ%2BMFyvHZlvCfZVEqSL1jJIWyEcU8VOBm0RI5RWK%2BGtjkDtGDFxuwvZtW accessed 18 July 2024.

145. UN Women, ‘General recommendations made by the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women’ https://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/recommendations/recomm.html accessed 22 July 2024.

146. Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 20 December 2004/ A/RES/59/166/10 February 2005

147. CEDAW (n 58) art 2 (e).

148. Patrick Twomey, ‘Europe's Other Market: Trafficking in People’ (2000) 2 (1) European Journal of Migration & Law.

149. The Convention on the Rights of the Child (adopted 20 November 1989, entered into force 2 September 1990) 1577 UNTS 3 (CRC) art 19.

150. O’Connell Davidson, ‘Moving Children? Child Trafficking, Child Migration, and Child Rights’ (2011) (31) 3 Critical Social Policy 454, 458.

151. CRC (n 64) art 3.

152. O'Connell (n 65) 471.

153. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (adopted 16 December 1966, entered into force 23 March 1976)999 UNTS 171(ICCPR) art 8 (1), 8(2), 8(3).

154. Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings (adopted 16 May 2005, entered into force 1 February 2008) CETS 197.

155. ibid art 1.

156. Council of Europe Convention on Action Against Trafficking in Human Beings https://www.coe.int/en/web/impact-convention-human-rights/council-of-europe-convention-on-action-against-trafficking-in-human-beings#/ accessed 22 July 2024.

157. Directive 2011/36/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 5 April 2011 on preventing and combating trafficking in human beings and protecting its victims and replacing Council Framework Decision 2002/629/JHA.

158. ibid.

159. ibid.

160. ibid.

161. European Commission , ‘Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, The Council, The European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions the EU Strategy towards the Eradication of Trafficking in Human Beings 2012–2016’ https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2012:0286:FIN:EN:PDF accessed 22 July 2024, 5.

162. EUROPOL, https://www.europol.europa.eu/media-press/newsroom/news/1-426-potential-victims-identified-in-global-operation-against-human-trafficking accessed 22 July 2024.

163. UNGA Res 64/293 (12 August 2010) UN Doc A/RES/64/293.

164. United Nations, ‘10 Years of the Global Report on Trafficking in Persons – General Assembly appraises the UN Global Plan of Action to Combat Trafficking in Persons’ https://www.unodc.org/conig/en/stories/10-years-of-the-global-report-on-trafficking-in-persons-general-assembly-appraises-the-un-global-plan-of-action-to-combat-trafficking-in-persons.html accessed 24 July 2024.

165. United Nations, ‘General Assembly appraises the UN Global Plan of Action to Combat Trafficking in Persons’ https://www.unodc.org/unodc/frontpage/2021/November/general-assembly-appraises-the-un-global-plan-of-action-to-combat-trafficking-in-persons.html accessed 24 July 2024.

166. United Nations, ‘The 17 Goals’ https://sdgs.un.org/goals accessed 24 July 2024.

167. ibid.

168. United Nations, ‘Special Rapporteur on trafficking in persons, especially women and children’ https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/sr-trafficking-in-persons accessed 24 July 2024.

169. United Nations, ‘UK: Migrant workers must be protected from deception and exploitation say UN experts’ ( 03 June 2024) https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2024/06/uk-migrant-workers-must-be-protected-deception-and-exploitation-say-un accessed 3 August 2024.

170. Anti-Slavery International, ‘What is Modern Slavery?’ https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/modern-slavery/ accessed 30 July 2024.

171. Office for National Statistics, “Modern Slavery in the UK: March 2020” (26 March 2020) https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/crimeandjustice/articles/modernslaveryintheuk/march2020 accessed 30 July 2024.

172. International Labour Organization, Global Estimates of Modern Slavery: Forced Labour and Forced Marriage (ILO 2022) 19.

173. Forced Labour Convention (adopted 28 June 1930, entered into force 1 May 1932) 39 UNTS 55 art 2.

174. Convention to Suppress the Slave Trade and Slavery (adopted 25 September 1926, entered into force 9 March 1927) 212 UNTS 17 art 1.

175. Smuggling Protocol (n 38) art 3(a).

176. Kadriye Bakirci, ‘A Criticism of the International Labour Organization’ (2009) 16 (2) J Fin Crime 160, 162.

177. ibid.

178. Jessica Elliott, The Role of Consent in Human Trafficking’ (1st edn, Routledge 2015) 137.

179. ibid.

180. ibid 135.

181. Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (adopted 23 May 1969, entered into force 27 January 1980)1115 UNTS 331 art 26.

182. Davíd Björgvinsson, The Intersection of International Law and Domestic Law: A Theoretical and Practical Analysis (EIFL 2015) 2.

183. ibid 3.

184. Constitution of the Argentine Nation1975, art 31.

185. Constitution of the French Republic1958, art 55.

186. Political Constitution of the United Mexican States 1917, art 133.

187. Constitution of the Republic of South Africa 1996, art 232.

188. ibid art 233.

189. ibid.

190. Stefano Betti, ‘New Prospects for Inter-state Cooperation in Criminal Matters: The Palermo Convention’ (2003) 3 International Criminal Law Review 154

191. Cotton Campaign, ‘New Independent Reporting Reveals Ongoing Systematic Forced Labor and Corruption in Turkmenistan Cotton Harvest’ https://www.cottoncampaign.org/news/new-independent-reporting-reveals-ongoing-systematic-forced-labor-and-corruption-in-turkmenistan-cotton-harvestnbsp accessed 3 August 2024.

192. Palermo (n 35) preamble.

193. Agnes Simic and Brad Blitz, 'The Modern Slavery Regime: A Critical Evaluation' (2019) 7(s1) Journal of the British Academy 1, 2.

194. Modern Slavery Act 2015, s 2 (1).

195. ibid s 3.

196. The Children's Society, 'Defining Child Criminal Exploitation' (Childrenssociety.org.uk, 27 April 2021) https://www.childrenssociety.org.uk/information/professionals/resources/defining-child-criminal-exploitation accessed 3 August 2024.

197. Modern Slavery (n 109) s 54 (1), (2).

198. The House of Commons Home Affairs Committee, ‘Human Trafficking: First Report of Session 2023-24’ https://committees.parliament.uk/publications/42482/documents/211207/default/ accessed 30 July 2024, 21.

199. ibid.

200. Modern Slavery (n 109) s 54 (11).

201. The House of Commons (n 113).

202. Independent Anti-Slavery Commissioner, ‘Independent Anti-Slavery Commissioner Annual Report 2021-2022’ https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/62617c2fd3bf7f55ca4ccf0e/E02718100_Un-num_Act_Independent_Anti-Slavery_Commission_Web_Accessible.pdf accessed 3 August 2024.

203. ibid 9.

204. ibid 59.

205. The House of Commons (n 113) 8.

206. ibid 40.

207. ibid p8.

208. ibid.

209. United Nations Human Rights Council, ‘Universal Periodic Review - United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland’ https://www.ohchr.org/en/hr-bodies/upr/gb-index accessed 4 August 2024.

210. House of Commons Home Affairs Committee, ‘Oral Evidence: Investigation into Incidents of Spiking’ (HC 13454, 2023) <https://committees.parliament.uk/oralevidence/13454/pdf/ >accessed 1 August 2024, Q 446.

211. Peter Wieltschnig, ‘The UK must improve labour market enforcement in order to tackle exploitation of workers’ (21 November 2023) https://freemovement.org.uk/the-uk-must-improve-labour-market-enforcement-in-order-to-tackle-exploitation-of-workers/ accessed 1 August 2024.

212. ibid.

213. United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, 'United Kingdom's Eighth Periodic Report' (26 February 2019) UN Doc CEDAW/C/GBR/8.

214. Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, 'Concluding Observations on the Eighth Periodic Report of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland' (18 February – 8 March 2019) UN Doc CEDAW/C/GBR/CO/8, 7,8.

215. ibid.

216. Home Office, ‘ Independent Review of the Modern Slavery Act: Final Report’ ( 31 December 2021) https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/independent-review-of-the-modern-slavery-act-final-report/independent-review-of-the-modern-slavery-act-final-report-accessible-version accessed 1 August 2024.

217. Saamiya Ahmad , ‘The National Referral Mechanism: The UK's Inadequate Support for Modern Slavery Victims’ (humanrightspulse.com, 16 November 2021) https://www.humanrightspulse.com/mastercontentblog/the-national-referral-mechanism-the-uk-states-inadequate-support-for-modern-slavery-victims accessed 3 August 2024.

218. ibid.

219. Council of Europe, ‘GRETA carries out third evaluation of the United Kingdom’ (6 October 2020) https://www.coe.int/en/web/anti-human-trafficking/-/greta-carries-out-evaluation-of-the-united-kingdom-as-part-of-the-third-evaluation-roun accessed 1 August 2024.

220. [2018] EWCA Crim 667.

221. [2018] EWCA Crim 1432.

222. [2018] EWCA Crim 1613.

223. [2021] EWCA Civ 46.

224. [2023] EWCA Crim 23.

225. [2023] EWCA Crim 1309.

226. Home Office (n 131).

227. The House of Commons (n 113) 23.

228. Home Office (n 131).

229. ibid.

230. The House of Commons (n 113) 20.

231. Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (adopted 18 December 1979, entered into force 3 September 1981) 1249 UNTS 13 (CEDAW)

232. Convention on the Rights of the Child (adopted 20 November 1989, entered into force 2 September 1990) 1577 UNTS 3 (CRC)

233. Convention to Suppress the Slave Trade and Slavery (adopted 25 September 1926, entered into force 9 March 1927) 212 UNTS 17

234. Forced Labour Convention (adopted 28 June 1930, entered into force 1 May 1932) 39 UNTS 55

235. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (adopted 16 December 1966, entered into force 23 March 1976) 999 UNTS 171(ICCPR)

236. Protocol against the Illicit Manufacturing and Trafficking in Firearms, Their Parts and Components and Ammunition (adopted 31 May 2001, entered into force 3 July 2005) 2326 UNTS 208 (Firearms Protocol)

237. Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (adopted 15 November 2000, entered into force 28 January 2004) 2225 UNTS 209 (Smuggling Protocol)

238. Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (adopted 15 November 2000, entered into force 25 December 2003) 2237 UNTS 319 (Palermo protocol)

239. United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (adopted 15 November 2000, entered into force 29 September 2003) 2225 UNTS 209 (UNTOC)

240. Universal Declaration of Human Rights (adopted 10 December 1948) UNGA Res 217 A (III) (UDHR)

241. Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (adopted 23 May 1969, entered into force 27 January 1980)1115 UNTS 331 (Vienna Convention)

242. Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings (adopted 16 May 2005, entered into force 1 February 2008) CETS 197

243. Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 20 December 2004/ A/RES/59/166/10 February 2005

244. UNGA Res 64/293 (12 August 2010) UN Doc A/RES/64/293

245. Directive 2011/36/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 5 April 2011 on preventing and combating trafficking in human beings and protecting its victims and replacing Council Framework Decision 2002/629/JHA

246. Constitution of the Argentine Nation1975

247. Constitution of the French Republic1958

248. Constitution of the Republic of South Africa 1996

249. Political Constitution of the United Mexican States 1917

250. Human Trafficking and Exploitation (Criminal Justice and Support for Victims) Act (Northern Ireland) 2015

251. Human Trafficking and Exploitation (Scotland) Act 2015

252. Illegal Migration Act 2023

253. Modern Slavery Act 2015

254. Nationality and Borders Act 2002

255. Online Safety Act 2023

256. Sexual Offences Act 2003

257. ADG and Another [2023] EWCA Crim 1309

258. MK v R [2018] EWCA Crim 667

259. R v AFU [2023] EWCA Crim 23

260. R v K, W, A [2018] EWCA Crim 1432

261. R v. Josephine Iyamu [2018] EWCA Crim 1613

262. Re JB [2021] EWCA Civ 46

263. Secretary of State for the Home Department v Lyudmila Dzhygun [2013] EWCA Civ 1633

264. Bakirci K, ‘A Criticism of the International Labour Organization’ (2009) 16 (2) J Fin Crime 160

265. Betti S, ‘New Prospects for Inter-state Cooperation in Criminal Matters: The Palermo Convention’ (2003) 3 International Criminal Law Review 154

266. Cockbain E and others, ‘Concentrations of harm: Geographic and demographic patterning in human trafficking and related victimization’ (2024) Criminology & Criminal Justice 1

267. Davidson O, ‘Moving Children? Child Trafficking, Child Migration, and Child Rights’ (2011) (31) 3 Critical Social Policy 454

268. Hodge D and Lietz C, ‘The International Sexual Trafficking of Women and Children: A Review of the Literature’ (2007) 22 Affilia: Journal of Women and Social Work 163

269. Landman T, Brewster B and Thornton S, ‘Taking Back Control: Human Rights and Human Trafficking in the United Kingdom’ (2024) Societies 14

270. Montasari R , Jahankhani H and Carrol F, ‘Combating Human Trafficking: An Analysis of International and Domestic Legislations’ (2021) Springer 135

271. Ollus N, ‘Regulating forced labour and combating human trafficking: the relevance of historical definitions in a contemporary perspective’ (2015) 63 (5) Crime, law, and social change 221

272. Plant R, ‘Forced Labour, Slavery and Human Trafficking: When do definitions matter?’ (2015) 5 Anti- Trafficking Review 153

273. Simic A and Blitz B, 'The Modern Slavery Regime: A Critical Evaluation' (2019) 7(s1) Journal of the British Academy 1

274. Twomey P, ‘Europe's Other Market: Trafficking in People’ (2000) 2 (1) European Journal of Migration & Law

275. Björgvinsson D, The Intersection of International Law and Domestic Law: A Theoretical and Practical Analysis (EIFL 2015)

276. Elliott J, The Role of Consent in Human Trafficking’ (1st edn, Routledge 2015)

277. Haverkamp R and others, What is wrong with human trafficking? Critical perspectives on the law (Hart Publishing, 2019)

278. International Labour Organization, Global Estimates of Modern Slavery: Forced Labour and Forced Marriage (ILO 2022)

279. McAdam M, The international legal framework on human trafficking: contemporary understandings and continuing confusions (SAGE Publications, 2019)

280. Rijken C, Trafficking in Persons: Prosecution from a European Perspective (TMC Asser Press 2003)

281. Anti-Slavery International, ‘What is Modern Slavery?’https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/modern-slavery/ accessed 30 July 2024

282. Cotton Campaign, ‘New Independent Reporting Reveals Ongoing Systematic Forced Labor and Corruption in Turkmenistan Cotton Harvest’ https://www.cottoncampaign.org/news/new-independent-reporting-reveals-ongoing-systematic-forced-labor-and-corruption-in-turkmenistan-cotton-harvestnbsp accessed 3 August 2024

283. Council of Europe Convention on Action Against Trafficking in Human Beings< https://www.coe.int/en/web/impact-convention-human-rights/council-of-europe-convention-on-action-against-trafficking-in-human-beings accessed 22 July 2024

284. European Commission , ‘Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, The Council, The European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions the EU Strategy towards the Eradication of Trafficking in Human Beings 2012–2016’ https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2012:0286:FIN:EN:PDF accessed 22 July 2024

285. EUROPOL, https://www.europol.europa.eu/media-press/newsroom/news/1-426-potential-victims-identified-in-global-operation-against-human-trafficking accessed 22 July 2024

286. General Recommendation on the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women https://docstore.ohchr.org/SelfServices/FilesHandler.ashx?enc=6QkG1d%2FPPRiCAqhKb7yhsldCrOlUTvLRFDjh6%2Fx1pWDzDf17M0o0BdlJx4bGjoTpEC7aWTflJ%2BMFyvHZlvCfZVEqSL1jJIWyEcU8VOBm0RI5RWK%2BGtjkDtGDFxuwvZtW accessed 18 July 2024

287. Home Office, ‘ Independent Review of the Modern Slavery Act: Final Report’ ( 31 December 2021) https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/independent-review-of-the-modern-slavery-act-final-report/independent-review-of-the-modern-slavery-act-final-report-accessible-version accessed 1 August 2024.

288. Home Office, ‘2021 annual report on modern slavery’ (25 November 2021) https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/2021-uk-annual-report-on-modern-slavery/2021-uk-annual-report-on-modern-slavery-accessible-version accessed 25 July 2024

289. Home Office, ‘Modern Slavery: an application of multiple systems estimation’ (29 November 2014) https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/modern-slavery-an-application-of-multiple-systems-estimation accessed 20 July 2024

290. Home Office, ‘Modern Slavery: National Referral Mechanism and Duty to Notify statistics UK, end of year summary 2023’ (7 March 2024) https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/modern-slavery-nrm-and-dtn-statistics-end-of-year-summary-2023/modern-slavery-national-referral-mechanism-and-duty-to-notify-statistics-uk-end-of-year-summary-2023 accessed 28 July 2024

291. Home Office, ‘Official Statistics: Modern Slavery: National Referral Mechanism and Duty to Notify statistics UK, quarter 1 2024-January to March’ (10 May 2024) https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/modern-slavery-nrm-and-dtn-statistics-january-to-march-2024/modern-slavery-national-referral-mechanism-and-duty-to-notify-statistics-uk-quarter-1-2024-january-to-march accessed 28 July 2024

292. Home office, ‘Press release Alarming rise of abuse within modern slavery system” (20 March 2021) < https://www.gov.uk/government/news/alarming-rise-of-abuse-within-modern-slavery-system > accessed 3 July 2024

293. House of Commons Home Affairs Committee, ‘Oral Evidence: Investigation into Incidents of Spiking’ (2023) https://committees.parliament.uk/oralevidence/13454/pdf/ accessed 1 August 2024, Q 446

294. Metropolitan Police, ‘Human trafficking’ https://www.met.police.uk/advice/advice-and-information/ms/human-trafficking/ accessed 20 July 2024

295. Mullally S, ‘Statement of the UN Special Rapporteur on Trafficking in Persons, especially women and children on the occasion of the 10th session of the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime’ https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Issues/Trafficking/Statement_Special_Rapporteur.pdf accessed 20 July 2024

296. National Crime Agency, ‘Modern slavery and human trafficking https://nationalcrimeagency.gov.uk/what-we-do/crime-threats/modern-slavery-and-human-trafficking accessed 20 July 2024

297. Office for National Statistics, “Modern Slavery in the UK: March 2020” (26 March 2020) https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/crimeandjustice/articles/modernslaveryintheuk/march2020 accessed 30 July 2024

298. The Children's Society, 'Defining Child Criminal Exploitation' (27 April 2021) https://www.childrenssociety.org.uk/information/professionals/resources/defining-child-criminal-exploitation accessed 3 August 2024

299. U.S. Department of State, “2024 Trafficking in Persons Report” (2024) https://www.state.gov/reports/2024-trafficking-in-persons-report/ accessed 3 August 2024

300. UN Women, ‘General recommendations made by the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women’ https://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/recommendations/recomm.html accessed 22 July 2024

301. United Nations Human Rights Council, ‘Universal Periodic Review - United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland’ https://www.ohchr.org/en/hr-bodies/upr/gb-index accessed 4 August 2024

302. United Nations, ‘10 Years of the Global Report on Trafficking in Persons – General Assembly appraises the UN Global Plan of Action to Combat Trafficking in Persons’ https://www.unodc.org/conig/en/stories/10-years-of-the-global-report-on-trafficking-in-persons-general-assembly-appraises-the-un-global-plan-of-action-to-combat-trafficking-in-persons.html accessed 24 July 2024

303. United Nations, ‘General Assembly appraises the UN Global Plan of Action to Combat Trafficking in Persons’ https://www.unodc.org/unodc/frontpage/2021/November/general-assembly-appraises-the-un-global-plan-of-action-to-combat-trafficking-in-persons.html accessed 24 July 2024

304. United Nations, ‘Special Rapporteur on trafficking in persons, especially women and children’ https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/sr-trafficking-in-persons accessed 24 July 2024

305. United Nations, ‘The 17 Goals’ https://sdgs.un.org/goals accessed 24 July 2024

306. United Nations, ‘UK: Migrant workers must be protected from deception and exploitation say UN experts’ (ohchr.org, 03 June 2024) https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2024/06/uk-migrant-workers-must-be-protected-deception-and-exploitation-say-un accessed 3 August 2024

307. United Nations, ‘United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and the Protocols Thereto’ https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/organized-crime/intro/UNTOC.html accessed 3 July 2024

308. UNODC, ‘The crime of trafficking in persons’ https://www.unodc.org/e4j/en/tip-and-som/module-6/key-issues/crime-of-trafficking-in-persons.html accessed 5 July 2024

309. Wieltschnig P, ‘The UK must improve labour market enforcement in order to tackle exploitation of workers’ (21 November 2023) https://freemovement.org.uk/the-uk-must-improve-labour-market-enforcement-in-order-to-tackle-exploitation-of-workers/ accessed 1 August 2024

310. Ahmad S , ‘The National Referral Mechanism: The UK's Inadequate Support for Modern Slavery Victims’ (16 November 2021) https://www.humanrightspulse.com/mastercontentblog/the-national-referral-mechanism-the-uk-states-inadequate-support-for-modern-slavery-victims accessed 3 August 2024

311. Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, 'Concluding Observations on the Eighth Periodic Report of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland' (18 February – 8 March 2019) UN Doc CEDAW/C/GBR/CO/8

312. Council of Europe, ‘GRETA carries out third evaluation of the United Kingdom’ (6 October 2020) https://www.coe.int/en/web/anti-human-trafficking/-/greta-carries-out-evaluation-of-the-united-kingdom-as-part-of-the-third-evaluation-roun accessed 1 August 2024

313. Independent Anti-Slavery Commissioner, ‘Independent Anti-Slavery Commissioner Annual Report 2021-2022’ https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/62617c2fd3bf7f55ca4ccf0e/E02718100_Un-num_Act_Independent_Anti-Slavery_Commission_Web_Accessible.pdf accessed 3 August 2024

314. The House of Commons Home Affairs Committee, ‘Human Trafficking: First Report of Session 2023-24’ (Authority of the House of Commons, 8 December 2023) https://committees.parliament.uk/publications/42482/documents/211207/default/ accessed 3 August 2024

315. United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, 'United Kingdom's Eighth Periodic Report' (26 February 2019) UN Doc CEDAW/C/GBR/8

316. U.S. Department of State, ‘2024 Trafficking in Persons Report’ (2024) https://www.state.gov/reports/2024-trafficking-in-persons-report/ accessed 3 August 2024.

317. The House of Commons Home Affairs Committee, ‘Human Trafficking: First Report of Session 2023-24’ (Authority of the House of Commons, 8 December 2023) https://committees.parliament.uk/publications/42482/documents/211207/default/ accessed 3 August 2024, 8.

318. Home office, ‘Press release Alarming rise of abuse within modern slavery system” (20 March 2021) https://www.gov.uk/government/news/alarming-rise-of-abuse-within-modern-slavery-system accessed 3 July 2024.

319. Home Office, ‘Modern Slavery: an application of multiple systems estimation’ (29 November 2014) https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/modern-slavery-an-application-of-multiple-systems-estimation accessed 20 July 2024.

320. ibid.

321. ibid.

322. Ella Cockbain and others, ‘Concentrations of harm: Geographic and demographic patterning in human trafficking and related victimization’ (2024) Criminology & Criminal Justice 1, 6,7.

323. ibid 6.

324. Home Office, ‘2021 annual report on modern slavery’ (25 November 2021) https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/2021-uk-annual-report-on-modern-slavery/2021-uk-annual-report-on-modern-slavery-accessible-version accessed 25 July 2024.

325. ibid.

326. ibid.

327. ibid.

328. Home Office, ‘Modern Slavery: National Referral Mechanism and Duty to Notify statistics UK, end of year summary 2023’ (7 March 2024) https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/modern-slavery-nrm-and-dtn-statistics-end-of-year-summary-2023/modern-slavery-national-referral-mechanism-and-duty-to-notify-statistics-uk-end-of-year-summary-2023 accessed 28 July 2024.

329. ibid.

330. ibid.

331. ibid.

332. Home Office, ‘Official Statistics: Modern Slavery: National Referral Mechanism and Duty to Notify statistics UK, quarter 1 2024-January to March’ (10 May 2024) https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/modern-slavery-nrm-and-dtn-statistics-january-to-march-2024/modern-slavery-national-referral-mechanism-and-duty-to-notify-statistics-uk-quarter-1-2024-january-to-march accessed 28 July 2024.

333. Ella Cockbain (n 7).

334. Home Office (n 13).

335. ibid.

336. ibid.

337. ibid.

338. Home Office (n 17).

339. Home Office (n 13).

340. ibid.

341. National Crime Agency, ‘Modern slavery and human trafficking https://nationalcrimeagency.gov.uk/what-we-do/crime-threats/modern-slavery-and-human-trafficking accessed 20 July 2024.

342. Metropolitan Police, ‘Human trafficking’ https://www.met.police.uk/advice/advice-and-information/ms/human-trafficking/ accessed 20 July 2024.

343. Ella Cockbain (n 7) 6.

344. Home office (n 13).

345. ibid.

346. ibid.

347. ibid.

348. Ella Cockbain (n 7) 6.

349. U.S. Department (n 1).

350. Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (adopted 15 November 2000, entered into force 25 December 2003) 2237 UNTS 319 (Palermo protocol).

351. ibid preamble.

352. Roger Plant, ‘Forced Labour, Slavery and Human Trafficking: When do definitions matter?’ (2015) 5 Anti- Trafficking Review 153, 154.

353. Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (adopted 15 November 2000, entered into force 28 January 2004) 2225 UNTS 209 (Smuggling Protocol) and Protocol against the Illicit Manufacturing and Trafficking in Firearms, Their Parts and Components and Ammunition (adopted 31 May 2001, entered into force 3 July 2005) 2326 UNTS 208 (Firearms Protocol).

354. United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (adopted 15 November 2000, entered into force 29 September 2003) 2225 UNTS 209 art 37 (2).

355. United Nations, ‘United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and the Protocols Thereto’ https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/organized-crime/intro/UNTOC.html accessed 3 July 2024.

356. Siobhán Mullally, ‘Statement of the UN Special Rapporteur on Trafficking in Persons, especially women and children on the occasion of the 10th session of the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime’ https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Issues/Trafficking/Statement_Special_Rapporteur.pdf accessed 20 July 2024.

357. Palermo (n 35) art 2.

358. ibid art 6 (1).

359. UNODC, ‘The crime of trafficking in persons’ https://www.unodc.org/e4j/en/tip-and-som/module-6/key-issues/crime-of-trafficking-in-persons.html accessed 5 July 2024.

360. Palermo (n 35) art 3(c).

361. Conny Rijken, Trafficking in Persons: Prosecution from a European Perspective (TMC Asser Press 2003) 270.

362. Palermo (n 35) art 6.

363. ibid.

364. Rita Haverkamp and others, What is wrong with human trafficking? Critical perspectives on the law (Hart Publishing, 2019) 45.

365. Natalia Ollus, ‘Regulating forced labour and combating human trafficking: the relevance of historical definitions in a contemporary perspective’ (2015) 63 (5) Crime, law, and social change 221, 223.

366. Palermo (n 35) art 7.

367. Secretary of State for the Home Department v Lyudmila Dzhygun [2013] EWCA Civ 1633.

368. David Hodge and Chinthia Lietz, ‘The International Sexual Trafficking of Women and Children: A Review of the Literature’ (2007) 22 Affilia: Journal of Women and Social Work 163, 164.

369. Marica McAdam, The international legal framework on human trafficking: contemporary understandings and continuing confusions (SAGE Publications, 2019) 6.

370. Universal Declaration of Human Rights (adopted 10 December 1948) UNGA Res 217 A (III) (UDHR) art 1.

371. ibid art 3.

372. ibid art 4.

373. Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (adopted 18 December 1979, entered into force 3 September 1981) 1249 UNTS 13 (CEDAW) art 6.

374. General Recommendation on the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women https://docstore.ohchr.org/SelfServices/FilesHandler.ashx?enc=6QkG1d%2FPPRiCAqhKb7yhsldCrOlUTvLRFDjh6%2Fx1pWDzDf17M0o0BdlJx4bGjoTpEC7aWTflJ%2BMFyvHZlvCfZVEqSL1jJIWyEcU8VOBm0RI5RWK%2BGtjkDtGDFxuwvZtW accessed 18 July 2024.

375. UN Women, ‘General recommendations made by the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women’ https://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/recommendations/recomm.html accessed 22 July 2024.

376. Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 20 December 2004/ A/RES/59/166/10 February 2005

377. CEDAW (n 58) art 2 (e).

378. Patrick Twomey, ‘Europe's Other Market: Trafficking in People’ (2000) 2 (1) European Journal of Migration & Law.

379. The Convention on the Rights of the Child (adopted 20 November 1989, entered into force 2 September 1990) 1577 UNTS 3 (CRC) art 19.

380. O’Connell Davidson, ‘Moving Children? Child Trafficking, Child Migration, and Child Rights’ (2011) (31) 3 Critical Social Policy 454, 458.

381. CRC (n 64) art 3.

382. O'Connell (n 65) 471.

383. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (adopted 16 December 1966, entered into force 23 March 1976)999 UNTS 171(ICCPR) art 8 (1), 8(2), 8(3).

384. Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings (adopted 16 May 2005, entered into force 1 February 2008) CETS 197.

385. ibid art 1.

386. Council of Europe Convention on Action Against Trafficking in Human Beings https://www.coe.int/en/web/impact-convention-human-rights/council-of-europe-convention-on-action-against-trafficking-in-human-beings#/ accessed 22 July 2024.

387. Directive 2011/36/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 5 April 2011 on preventing and combating trafficking in human beings and protecting its victims and replacing Council Framework Decision 2002/629/JHA.

388. ibid.

389. ibid.

390. ibid.

391. European Commission , ‘Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, The Council, The European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions the EU Strategy towards the Eradication of Trafficking in Human Beings 2012–2016’ https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2012:0286:FIN:EN:PDF accessed 22 July 2024, 5.

392. EUROPOL, https://www.europol.europa.eu/media-press/newsroom/news/1-426-potential-victims-identified-in-global-operation-against-human-trafficking accessed 22 July 2024.

393. UNGA Res 64/293 (12 August 2010) UN Doc A/RES/64/293.

394. United Nations, ‘10 Years of the Global Report on Trafficking in Persons – General Assembly appraises the UN Global Plan of Action to Combat Trafficking in Persons’ https://www.unodc.org/conig/en/stories/10-years-of-the-global-report-on-trafficking-in-persons-general-assembly-appraises-the-un-global-plan-of-action-to-combat-trafficking-in-persons.html accessed 24 July 2024.

395. United Nations, ‘General Assembly appraises the UN Global Plan of Action to Combat Trafficking in Persons’ https://www.unodc.org/unodc/frontpage/2021/November/general-assembly-appraises-the-un-global-plan-of-action-to-combat-trafficking-in-persons.html accessed 24 July 2024.

396. United Nations, ‘The 17 Goals’ https://sdgs.un.org/goals accessed 24 July 2024.

397. ibid.

398. United Nations, ‘Special Rapporteur on trafficking in persons, especially women and children’ https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/sr-trafficking-in-persons accessed 24 July 2024.

399. United Nations, ‘UK: Migrant workers must be protected from deception and exploitation say UN experts’ ( 03 June 2024) https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2024/06/uk-migrant-workers-must-be-protected-deception-and-exploitation-say-un accessed 3 August 2024.

400. Anti-Slavery International, ‘What is Modern Slavery?’ https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/modern-slavery/ accessed 30 July 2024.

401. Office for National Statistics, “Modern Slavery in the UK: March 2020” (26 March 2020) https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/crimeandjustice/articles/modernslaveryintheuk/march2020 accessed 30 July 2024.

402. International Labour Organization, Global Estimates of Modern Slavery: Forced Labour and Forced Marriage (ILO 2022) 19.

403. Forced Labour Convention (adopted 28 June 1930, entered into force 1 May 1932) 39 UNTS 55 art 2.

404. Convention to Suppress the Slave Trade and Slavery (adopted 25 September 1926, entered into force 9 March 1927) 212 UNTS 17 art 1.

405. Smuggling Protocol (n 38) art 3(a).

406. Kadriye Bakirci, ‘A Criticism of the International Labour Organization’ (2009) 16 (2) J Fin Crime 160, 162.

407. ibid.

408. Jessica Elliott, The Role of Consent in Human Trafficking’ (1st edn, Routledge 2015) 137.

409. ibid.

410. ibid 135.

411. Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (adopted 23 May 1969, entered into force 27 January 1980)1115 UNTS 331 art 26.

412. Davíd Björgvinsson, The Intersection of International Law and Domestic Law: A Theoretical and Practical Analysis (EIFL 2015) 2.

413. ibid 3.

414. Constitution of the Argentine Nation1975, art 31.

415. Constitution of the French Republic1958, art 55.

416. Political Constitution of the United Mexican States 1917, art 133.

417. Constitution of the Republic of South Africa 1996, art 232.

418. ibid art 233.

419. ibid.

420. Stefano Betti, ‘New Prospects for Inter-state Cooperation in Criminal Matters: The Palermo Convention’ (2003) 3 International Criminal Law Review 154

421. Cotton Campaign, ‘New Independent Reporting Reveals Ongoing Systematic Forced Labor and Corruption in Turkmenistan Cotton Harvest’ https://www.cottoncampaign.org/news/new-independent-reporting-reveals-ongoing-systematic-forced-labor-and-corruption-in-turkmenistan-cotton-harvestnbsp accessed 3 August 2024.

422. Palermo (n 35) preamble.

423. Agnes Simic and Brad Blitz, 'The Modern Slavery Regime: A Critical Evaluation' (2019) 7(s1) Journal of the British Academy 1, 2.

424. Modern Slavery Act 2015, s 2 (1).

425. ibid s 3.

426. The Children's Society, 'Defining Child Criminal Exploitation' (Childrenssociety.org.uk, 27 April 2021) https://www.childrenssociety.org.uk/information/professionals/resources/defining-child-criminal-exploitation accessed 3 August 2024.

427. Modern Slavery (n 109) s 54 (1), (2).

428. The House of Commons Home Affairs Committee, ‘Human Trafficking: First Report of Session 2023-24’ https://committees.parliament.uk/publications/42482/documents/211207/default/ accessed 30 July 2024, 21.

429. ibid.

430. Modern Slavery (n 109) s 54 (11).

431. The House of Commons (n 113).

432. Independent Anti-Slavery Commissioner, ‘Independent Anti-Slavery Commissioner Annual Report 2021-2022’ https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/62617c2fd3bf7f55ca4ccf0e/E02718100_Un-num_Act_Independent_Anti-Slavery_Commission_Web_Accessible.pdf accessed 3 August 2024.

433. ibid 9.

434. ibid 59.

435. The House of Commons (n 113) 8.

436. ibid 40.

437. ibid p8.

438. ibid.

439. United Nations Human Rights Council, ‘Universal Periodic Review - United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland’ https://www.ohchr.org/en/hr-bodies/upr/gb-index accessed 4 August 2024.

440. House of Commons Home Affairs Committee, ‘Oral Evidence: Investigation into Incidents of Spiking’ (HC 13454, 2023) <https://committees.parliament.uk/oralevidence/13454/pdf/ >accessed 1 August 2024, Q 446.

441. Peter Wieltschnig, ‘The UK must improve labour market enforcement in order to tackle exploitation of workers’ (21 November 2023) https://freemovement.org.uk/the-uk-must-improve-labour-market-enforcement-in-order-to-tackle-exploitation-of-workers/ accessed 1 August 2024.

442. ibid.

443. United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, 'United Kingdom's Eighth Periodic Report' (26 February 2019) UN Doc CEDAW/C/GBR/8.

444. Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, 'Concluding Observations on the Eighth Periodic Report of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland' (18 February – 8 March 2019) UN Doc CEDAW/C/GBR/CO/8, 7,8.

445. ibid.

446. Home Office, ‘ Independent Review of the Modern Slavery Act: Final Report’ ( 31 December 2021) https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/independent-review-of-the-modern-slavery-act-final-report/independent-review-of-the-modern-slavery-act-final-report-accessible-version accessed 1 August 2024.

447. Saamiya Ahmad , ‘The National Referral Mechanism: The UK's Inadequate Support for Modern Slavery Victims’ (humanrightspulse.com, 16 November 2021) https://www.humanrightspulse.com/mastercontentblog/the-national-referral-mechanism-the-uk-states-inadequate-support-for-modern-slavery-victims accessed 3 August 2024.

448. ibid.

449. Council of Europe, ‘GRETA carries out third evaluation of the United Kingdom’ (6 October 2020) https://www.coe.int/en/web/anti-human-trafficking/-/greta-carries-out-evaluation-of-the-united-kingdom-as-part-of-the-third-evaluation-roun accessed 1 August 2024.

450. [2018] EWCA Crim 667.

451. [2018] EWCA Crim 1432.

452. [2018] EWCA Crim 1613.

453. [2021] EWCA Civ 46.

454. [2023] EWCA Crim 23.

455. [2023] EWCA Crim 1309.

456. Home Office (n 131).

457. The House of Commons (n 113) 23.

458. Home Office (n 131).

459. ibid.

460. The House of Commons (n 113) 20.

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